War and Peace in Islam
There is perhaps no other topic which is so often misunderstood
as the attitude of Muslims towards war and aggression. In fact, some of the
books or web sites on this topic seem to continue to delight in portraying
Islam as a totally warlike religion which converted people by the sword. The
need to answer this ignorant picture (which is fed by media concerns) has
understandably produced even more books and sites wanting to portray Islam as a
totally pacifist religion which spread only by prayer and preaching and which
has never used military strength. It is easy to be swayed by emotive arguments
and end up with a satisfying but simplistic and inaccurate idea about Islam and
war. This section attempts to take Islamic history and tradition seriously and
give a full picture. There is, of course, as usual much more here than you will
need for GCSE level but it allows you either to skim the surface to get an
overview or to study this crucial topic in detail if the interest drives you.
I am aware that this is against the increasingly popular trend to
define Jihad in purely spiritual terms and reclaim something of its original
meaning in the Qur'an. 
A Mujahid Guerilla Fighter
Go here for Qur'an resources!
GCSE
Questions:These are the sort of Questions you will have to answer:
Section C, 1: Questions of Meaning.
Question 10
b) Explain religious attitudes to either abortion or war. (8 Marks)
c) There are three main religious attitudes to abortion, euthanasia and war:
-They are all wrong;
-Some of them can be justified;
-They can all be justified.
Why do you think religious people sometimes disagree on these issues? (5 Marks)
(SEG RE Short Course Specimen Paper)
Question 11
a) Why might some religious people support some wars but not others? (6 Marks)
b) Explain how religious teachings and beliefs might help prevent wars. (9 Marks)
c) "Because of greed, hatred and sin, there will always be wars."
How far do you agree? Show that you have thought about different points of view and give reasons to support your answer. Your arguments should refer to religious teachings and beliefs. (5 Marks)
(SEG RE Short Course 2000 Paper)
Question 19
a) Describe what Muslims mean by 'Jihad'. (8 Marks)
b) Explain how Muslims might respond if they see other people treated very badly by a government. (7 Marks)
c) 'Sometimes using violence is the only way to solve a problem'.
Do you agree? Give reasons to support your answer showing that you have thought about different points of view. You must refer to Islam in your answer. (5 Marks)
(OCR Religious Studies Paper 2, Specimen)
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Qur'an: "Fight in the cause of Allah against those who fight against you, but do not transgress limits. Lo! Allah loves not aggressors. ...And fight them until persecution is no more, and religion is for Allah. But if they desist, then let there be no hostility except against transgressors." (2:190, 193) "Permission (to fight) is granted to those who are being persecuted, since injustice has befallen them, and GOD is certainly able to support them. They were evicted from their homes unjustly, for no reason other than saying, "Our Lord is GOD." If it were not for GOD's supporting of some people against others, monasteries, churches, synagogues, and masjids - where the name of GOD is commemorated frequently - would have been destroyed. Absolutely, GOD supports those who support Him. GOD is Powerful, Almighty."(22:39-40). "And why should you not fight in the cause of Allah and of those who, being weak, are ill-treated (and oppressed)? - Men, women, and children, whose cry is: 'Our Lord! Rescue us from this town, whose people are oppressors; and raise for us from You, one who will protect; and raise for us from You, one who will help.'" (4:75) "You shall prepare for them all the power you can muster, and all the equipment you can mobilize, that you may frighten the enemies of GOD, your enemies, as well as others who are not known to you; GOD knows them. Whatever you spend in the cause of GOD will be repaid to you generously, without the least injustice.If they resort to peace, so shall you, and put your trust in GOD. He is the Hearer, the Omniscient." (8:60-61) "Those who readily fight in the cause of GOD are those who forsake this world in favor of the Hereafter. Whoever fights in the cause of GOD, then gets killed, or attains victory, we will surely grant him a great recompense. Why should you not fight in the cause of GOD when weak men, women, and children are imploring: "Our Lord, deliver us from this community whose people are oppressive, and be You our Lord and Master."(4:74-75). "Fight in the cause of Allah against those who fight against you, but do not transgress limits. Lo! Allah loves not aggressors. ...And fight them until persecution is no more, and religion is for Allah. But if they desist, then let there be no hostility except against transgressors." (2:190, 193) |
Introduction : Stereotypes, Western Media and warlike Islam
The image of the gun-carrying 'Muslim' fanatic is well known in the western media. The reasons for keeping this very old stereotype of Islam alive and well are too detailed and complex for this site. The two following extracts show how deep-rooted this stereotype can be:
From an informal survey of the daily news headlines of Reuters "World News Summary" webpage in 1997 for the purpose of charting the ratio of articles about Islam to those which specifically link Islam and offensive violence:
Results: of the twenty-three articles which mentioned Islam, twenty were exclusively reports of Muslim military activity in which clear connections were drawn between the news-making actions and the participants' adherence to Islam!
From Reuters News Summary; World. Filename: http://www.yahoo.com/text/headlines/international/
One student of mine once said: "I have never seen a peaceful Muslim, they all want to fight and kill". I asked him: "How many Muslims do you know?" He paused and answered: "only one, you". I then asked: "does this mean you think I am violent?" He said: "No, but I see them on television". From an interesting site by a female Muslim academic: 'On Being A Muslim Woman: Laws and Practices' By Nawal H. Ammar, Ph.D. Assistant Professor Kent State University/Trumbull
http://www.consultation.org/consultation/ammar.htm#jihad
Though many Muslims would see this distorted image of themselves as totally a creation of western media to discredit Islam, some admit that groups of extremists calling themselves Muslim yet willing to commit violent acts to achieve political goals do nothing to better the image of Islam in the West:
That the West has learned to think of jihad and terrorism as the same is not entirely the fault of the Western media. Undoubtedly a small fraction of crazed Muslims have helped this concept along.
'In Islam, Jihad and Terrorism Are Opposites'
By Mahjabeen Islam-Husain October/November 1998, pages 117-118
(From Washington Report on Middle East Affairs at:
http://www.washington-report.org/backissues/1098/9810117.html)
1. What does 'Jihad' mean?
The term 'Jihad' is often mistakenly translated as 'Holy War':
War is therefore the last resort, and is subject to the rigorous conditions laid down by the sacred law. The often misunderstood and overused term jihad literally means "struggle" and not "holy war", a term not found anywhere in the Qur'an. Jihad, as an Islamic concept, can be on a personal level--inner struggle against evil within oneself; struggle for decency and goodness on the social level; and struggle on the battlefield, if and when necessary.
http://www.discoverislam.com/23.html
Muslims point out that the term has a much wider significance, meaning any kind of struggle which has spiritual significance. Giving up smoking can count as Jihad, for example, or controlling one's temper. In Islamic theology, these struggles inside the personality are termed 'the Greater Jihad' and struggles with outside forces such as state power or tyrannical armies 'the lesser Jihad'.
So the term 'Jihad' is a very broad and all-embracing one. In Islam it is used in both a purely spiritual sense and with a military meaning. We will look at these two uses the word:
1. Spiritual:
Jihad as presented in the Quran and any of the other scriptures implies the striving for spiritual good. This Jihad particularly involves change in one's self and mentality. It may concern the sacrifice of material property, social class and even emotional comfort solely for the salvation and worship of God ALONE. As a result, one who practises Jihad will gain tremendously in the Hereafter.
2. Military:
Jihad also includes the striving and establishing of justice. Before one can strive for justice in his/her community, justice must be one of his/her main religious and moral principles. Jihad may also reflect the war aspects in Islam (Submission). The fighting of a war in the name of justice or Islam, to deter an aggressor , for self defense, and/or to establish justice and freedom to practice religion , would also be considered a Jihad .
In Brief; the meaning the media gives to this word (Jihad) is false. This word does not mean a holy war, for there is nothing holy about a war in Islam (submission). There are times when war is tolerated, permitted and even, in some case, to a point accepted, but never considered holy. Islam (Submission) is a religion of peace, no matter what certain media or misguided individuals say or claim. Islam (Submission) revolves around the concept of peace. "If they resort to peace, so shall you, and put your trust in GOD. He is the Hearer, the Omniscient."(8:61).
From a very detailed description of what Jihad means for Muslims at:
http://www.submission.org/muhammed/jihad.html
Islam (one of the roots of the name comes from 'salam'- 'peace') in fact prides itself on being a religion of peace and good Muslims have a hatred of violence and those who use it without the very strict conditions imposed on its use by Isam:
2. The Conditions for a Just War in Islam:
In Islam, armed conflict is only allowed:
In defense of the cause of Allah, not for conquest, suppression, exploitation
to restore peace and freedom of worship for freedom from tyranny
led by a spiritual leader
fought only until the enemy lays down arms
women, children, old, sick are not to be harmed, trees, crops not damaged
So, in Islam, Jihad does not include wars of aggression or amibtion, border disputes, forcing people into accepting a faith they do not believe. The Qur'an says "If the enemy inclines toward peace, then you must also incline towards peace (Sura 8:61) "If two sides quarrel, make peace between them. But if one trespasses beyond bounds against the other, then fight against the one that transgresses until he complies with the law of God; and if he complies, then make peace between them with justice, and be fair." (Sura 49:9)
From a clear and fair comparison between Christian Just War theory and Muslim Jihad (Our recommended site): http://www.belmont.edu/Humanities/Philosophy/courses/GMC/IslamicMoralCulture/wandJ.html
Like Christianity, Islam permits fighting in self-defense, in defense of religion, or on the part of those who have been expelled forcibly from their homes. It lays down strict rules of combat which include prohibitions against harming civilians and against destroying crops, trees and livestock. As Muslims see it, injustice would be triumphant in the world if good men were not prepared to risk their lives in a righteous cause. War, therefore, is a last resort, and is subject to the rigorous conditions laid down by the sacred law. The term jihad literally means 'struggle', and Muslims believe that there are two kinds of jihad. The other 'jihad' is the inner struggle which everyone wages against egoistic desires, for the sake of attaining inner peace.
http://www.iad.org/Islam/war.html
Muslims generally are enjoined to struggle in holy war to confront injustice and oppression. One Qur'anic verse says: "and fight them on until there is no more tumult or oppression, and there prevail justice and faith in God, altogether and every where" (8: 39). Fighting oppression is one important reason for a holy war, since "tumult and oppression are worse than slaughter" (2: 191). Nonetheless, war as a form of struggle in Islam, is seen as a last resort. Persuasion and patience should first be employed as a form of struggle. According to the Qur'an, first "invite (all) to the way of thy lord with wisdom, and beautiful preaching and argue with them in ways that are best and most gracious" (16: 127). From a well written site by the female Muslim academic referred to above: http://www.consultation.org/consultation/ammar.htm#jihad
3. Martyrdom in Islam:
For those 'Mujahedin', those striving in the cause of Allah in a military struggle against a clear oppressor, there is the guarantee of access to paradise if they become a 'Shaheed' (martyr) and die for the cause:
The most famous use of the word Jihad is as 'Holy War', and Islamic guerrillas fighting state authority in various Muslim countries use it freely to describe their struggles. The fighter who fights a Jihad - a Mujahid - is believed to go straight to Paradise if he dies and his enemy will go straight to Hell. But Muslims point out that the term has a much wider significance, meaning any kind of struggle which has spiritual significance. Giving up smoking can count as Jihad, for example, or controlling one's temper. All the same, the culture of Jihad and the 'martyrs' or shuhada it produces is pervasive in some Muslim countries. In the Palestinian territories, for example, during the Intifadah against Israeli occupation, such as was the prestige of dying as a 'shaheed' or martyr that even those who died in car accidents who had nothing to do with the political situation were termed 'shuhada' by their relatives. http://www.megastories.com/islam/glossary/jihad.htm
The history of Shi'i thought and religious belief differs rather markedly in places from that of Sunni Islam, such that different justifications tend to motivate martyrdom for Shi'is than for Sunnis. The motivations behind martyrdom in jihad differ between Sunnis and Shi'is. While the modern Sunni extremists are inspired by the justifications listed above (the martyr's reward, reaction to secularization and Zionism, etc.), the Shi'is are further motivated by the model of the death of the third Imam Husayn. Yet, the Qur'an expressly forbids suicide. The Qur'an statement "make not your own hands contribute to (your) destruction" (2:195) and the hadith teaching that anyone who dies by suicide will eternally reenact in hell the means by which he died (Sahih Bukhari, Volume 2, Book 23, Number 446) have been interpreted as a clear prohibition of suicide.
"Think not of those who are slain in Allah's way as dead. Nay, they live, finding their sustenance from their Lord. They rejoice in the Bounty provided by Allah...the (Martyrs) glory in the fact that on them is no fear, nor have they (cause to) grieve. They rejoice in the Grace and the Bounty from Allah, and in the fact that Allah suffereth not the reward of the Faithful to be lost (in the least)." (3:169-71)[19]
Such passages as these provide much of the rationale for a further theological position: not only does a martyr in the cause of God enter paradise, but he does so automatically--his admission is guaranteed. Many hadith elaborate on this theme. Sahih Bukhari provides two key texts:
Allah's Apostle said, "Someone came to me from my Lord and gave me the news that if any of my followers dies worshipping none along with Allah, he will enter Paradise." I asked, "Even if he committed adultery and theft?" He replied, "Even if he committed adultery and theft." (Volume 2, Book 23, Number 329)
Allah's Apostle said, "Allah guarantees [the martyr] that He will either admit him into Paradise or return him with reward or booty he has earned to his residence from where he went out." (Volume 9, Book 93, Number 555) Further rewards, as reported by hadith, are that the fighter in God's cause will, if killed in the struggle, receive privileges otherwise unattainable: he or she escapes the examination in the grave by the "interrogating angels"; he does not need to pass through barzakh, the purgatory limbo; he receives the highest of ranks in paradise, sitting near the throne of God--Muhammad described the "house of martyrs," dar al-shuhada', as the most beautiful abode of paradise; on the Day of Judgment any wounds the martyr received in battle will shine and smell like musk; his death as a martyr frees him of all sin such that he does not require the intercession of the Prophet; he is purified by his act and so he alone is not washed before burial.
It has become a modern 'extreme' view of jihad to deemphasize the spiritual aspect and swinging the application of jihad to the other, militant, extreme. The belief that martyrdom can strengthen the ideology behind a group's agenda is perhaps its chief appeal. At a celebration in Qum in 1990 a prominent mulla, Muhammad Baqir al-Sadr, is reported to have said to one of his disciples, "not all people are moved by ideas. Indeed, there are people who can be moved only by blood."[39]Quoted in Amatzia Baram, "Two Roads to Revolutionary Shi'ite Fundamentalism," in Martin E. Marty and R. Scott Appleby, eds., The Fundamentalism Project, volume IV: Accounting for Fundamentalisms (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994), 558.
4. The Extreme View of Jihad:
This medieval view of Jihad has been revived those Muslims persuing an extremist agenda. In this view the world is divided into two regions: the dar al-Islam and the dar al-harb, the ‘domain of Islam’ and ‘the domain of war.’
The famous revivalist and, arguably, father of 'Islamic' extremism, Muhammad b. 'Abd al-Wahhab distinguishes between dar al-Islam and dar al-harb, extending the scope of dar al-harb to some other Muslim countries which he regards as having 'unlawful' societies. Therefore those who live in dar al-harb where there is no freedom have to perform hijrah, emigrating from every country in which shirk and kufr are apparent.
In Hadith collections, jihad means armed action; for example, the 199 references to jihad in the most standard collection of hadith, Sahih al-Bukhari, all assume that jihad means warfare.[7] More broadly, Bernard Lewis finds that “the overwhelming majority of classical theologians, jurists, and traditionalists [i.e., specialists in the Hadith] . . . understood the obligation of jihad in a military sense.”[8] For the conservative jurists, jihad fits a context of the world divided into Muslim and non-Muslim zones, Dar al-Islam (Abode of Islam) and Dar al-Harb (Abode of War) respectively. This model implies perpetual warfare between Muslims and non-Muslims until the territory under Muslim control absorbs what is not, an attitude that perhaps reflects the optimism that resulted from the quick and far-reaching Arab conquests. Extending Dar al-Islam does not mean the annihilation of all non-Muslims, however, nor even their necessary conversion. Indeed, jihad cannot imply conversion by force, for the Qur’an (2:256) specifically states “there is no compulsion in religion.” Jihad has an explicitly political aim: the establishment of Muslim rule, which in turn has two benefits: it articulates Islam’s supersession of other faiths and creates the opportunity for Muslims to create a just political and social order."
From 'What Does Jihad Mean?' Middle East Quarterly in September 1997 online at http://www.ict.org.il/articles/jihad.htm
A solution to those who hold this medieval view is held out by those who propose a new 'House' (Dar):
"According to a fatwa from Shaykh Sha'rawi (the eminent scholar who came to Jerusalem with Anwar Sadat and prayed in al-Aqsa), a country where Muslims are free to practice their religion - and especially to assemble five times a day for the compulsory prayers - is not "Dar al-harb" (Territory of war), but must be named according to a new category, "Dar al-islah" (Territory of prosperity); Muslims must be loyal citizens of "Dar al-islah" countries."
http://www.gamla.org.il/english/article/1999/feb/b1.htm
5. Muhammed the Military Leader:
It is often overlooked that Muhammed's life was also that of a brilliant military leader. This is important to study as gives an insight into exactly how the use of force became permitted in Islam.
The Qur'an's attitude to the Lesser Jihad; taking up arms to defend the House of Islam, is shown in two groups of verses. On the one hand, Muslims are excused if they are forced to fight those who fight against them:
'Fight for the sake of Allah those that fight against you, but do not attack them first. Allah does not love aggressors.....Persecution is worse than slaughter. But fight them not at the sacred Mosque, unless they first fight you there. But if they fight you, slay them.' (2:190,191b)
'They ask you concerning fighting in the sacred month . Say: Fighting therein is a grave offence. But graver it is to prevent it is to prevent access to the path of Allah...' (2:127)
In other words, initiating hostilities was forbidden and violence was only to be used in self-defence to ensure the survival of the Muslim community. But on the other hand, the Qur'an elsewhere enjoins Muslims to 'kill in the cause of Allah' :
'But when the forbidden (sacred) months are passed, then fight and slay the pagans wherever ye find them, and seize them, beleaguer them and lie in wait for them in every stratagem (of war).' (9:5)
'O ye who believe; Kill the unbelievers who are near to you and let them find harshness in you ' (9:123)
'Kill those who believe not in Allah nor the Last Day,....' (9:29)
'Therefore, when ye meet the unbelievers (in fight), smite at their necks; at length when ye have thoroughly subdued them, bind (the captives) firmly.' (47:4)
What is one to make of such verses?
The first group of verses enunciated the basic principle of Jihad;- that of self-defence and the view of war as a necessary evil. Islamic Tradition puts these passages (2:190-191; 2:217) in the sixth year after the Prophet's migration (Hijra) to Medinah. For from there, Muhammed's followers had previously embarked upon frequent raids (razzias) as was normal in these times- attacking the Meccan caravans to capture animal and booty and to accumulate the required armaments that were deemed necessary for an approach on Mecca. To the unhoused immigrants these raids were naturally seen as necessary for survival. This is therefore the earliest period in which the principle of Jihad must have come into place and it is worth noting that Muslims still point to this Qur'anic principle in explaining these campaigns in terms of self-defence. Their surprising success at the battle of Badr in 642 CE (originally a raid) gave the Jihad fresh vigour, for the Muslims won against overwhelming odds . After other battles, in which Medinah finally emerged as the first Islamic state, Muhammed and his now large army marched peacefully upon Mecca in 628. There they made the Treaty of Hudaibiyya with the pagan Meccans - which was to last for ten years and which would give the Medinan Muslims the right to make their annual Pilgrimage in Mecca. To this period the prohibition of aggression passages probably refer.
However, after Muhammed's bloodless conquest of Mecca in 630 CE (9 A.H.), there followed a change of policy, reflected in our second group of verses. They come from the surah called 'Immunity' or 'Release' (Surah no.9) which in the following year Muhammed commissioned Ali to proclaim as an edict in Mecca- now purged of its idols. The edict was a release from obligations to keep peace with or to tolerate the pagans. Though this may seem shocking, Islamic tradition makes it clear that it was the pagans who had first gone back on their word and had broken the Treaty of Hudaibiyya. They had attacked first.
The pagans were banned from any Pilgrimage to Mecca and given only four months of immunity from attack. After that, those without special treaties were to be attacked if they did not become Muslims:
'But when the forbidden months are passed, fight and slay the pagans wherever ye find them.' (9:5)
The People of the Book (mainly Christians and Jews) who refused to 'acknowledge the Religion of Truth' were also to submit to the status of a subject people and agreed to pay a head-tax for being non-Muslim (9:29). This payment of a tax gave the Christians and Jews the right to live as a protected people. Compared to other religious states at the time this was remarkably tolerant.
So we see that the Qur'anic verses can only be understood with reference to their original context. On this idea the whole science of 'Tafsir' (Interpretation of the Qur'an) rests. We can see that there was a development of the military aspect of Jihad in the Prophet's lifetime: 'Peace, therefore, is not to be preferred to war, until Islam is inviolable and secure....But taking the basic thesis of Muslim apology that the wars were defensive, another basic decision is evidently involved- namely that religious survival should be served and guaranteed by force.' (K. Cragg). The Immunity edict of the new Islamic Meccan state was vital as it was to give the necessary legal basis and impetus for later expansion.
Tradition tells us that Muhammed's general policy after he had established the two city states of Medinah and Mecca was to send a letter of invitation to Islam to the country or city which he intended to conquer:
'......and if he did not hear it (the call to prayer from the city) he would attack them immediately after dawn.' (Bukhari Vol.4 no.193)
The following describes the conquest of Bahrain:
'Narrated Abdullah bin Abbas; Allah's Apostle sent his letter ( of invitation to Islam) to Khusran and ordered his messenger to hand it over to the governor of Bahrain who was to give it to Khusran. So when Khusran read the letter, he tore it up. Sa'd bin al-Musayib said: The Prophet then invoked Allah to disperse them with full dispersion (destroy them severely).' (Bukhari Vol.4 no.101)
And we are told that on his deathbed Muhammed '....gave three orders saying: Expel the pagans from the Arabian peninsula..' (Bukh.Vol.9 no.176) Hence the concept of Jihad in the Hadith is certainly synonymous with 'fighting'. The one who carries it out willingly in the cause of Allah will either be brought into paradise or 'returned home with reward and booty.' (Bukhari Vol.9 no.555)
Under the new 'Immunity' policy, a vigorous expansion pushed Islam beyond the Arabian borders and, within only a hundred years after the Hijra was to add an Empire that stretched from Gibraltar to the Himalayas. It is true that the Muslim soldiers were enjoined to fight humanely and in the conquests of new countries the Muslim armies showed great mercy and humanity.
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